Psychology (Ch15. Psychological disorders)

Psychology (Ch15. Psychological disorders)

  1. Defining and explaining abnormal behavior
    1. Overview 
    2. Theoretical approaches to psychological disorders 
      1. The biological approach 
      2. The psychological approach 
      3. The sociocultural approach 
      4. The bio-psychosocial model 
    3. Classifying abnormal behavior 
      1. The DSM classification system
      2. Critiques of the DSM
      3. Autism spectrum disorder 
      4. Somatic symptom disorder 
  2. Anxiety and anxiety-related disorders
    1. Overview 
    2. Generalized anxiety disorder 
    3. Panic disorder 
    4. Specific phobia
    5. Social anxiety disorder 
    6. Obsessive-compulsive disorder 
      1. Factors contributing to OCD
      2. OCD-related disorders
    7. Post-traumatic stress disorder 
  3. Disorders involving emotion and mood
    1. Depressive disorders 
      1. Biological factors 
      2. Psychological factors 
      3. Sociocultural factors 
    2. Bipolar disorder
  4. Dissociative disorders
    1. Dissociative amnesia 
    2. Dissociative identity disorder 
  5. Schizophrenia
    1. Overview 
    2. Symptoms of schizophrenia 
      1. positive symptoms 
      2. negative symptoms 
      3. cognitive symptoms 
    3. Causes of schizophrenia 
      1. Biological factors 
        1. Genes 
        2. Structural brain abnormalities 
        3. Neurotransmitter regulation
      2. Psychological factors 
      3. Sociocultural factors 
  6. Personality disorders
    1. Overview 
    2. Antisocial personality disorder 
    3. Borderline personality disorder
  7. Suicide
    1. Overview 
    2. Biological factors 
    3. Psychological factors 
    4. Sociocultural factors 
  8. Psychological disorders and health and wellness
    1. Overview 
    2. Consequences of stigma 
      1. Prejudice and discrimination 
      2. Physical health 
    3. Overcoming stigma 汚名恥辱

 

 

  • obessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) 強迫性障害 , 強迫症
  • somatic symptom disorder : experiencing one or more bodily symptoms and having excessive thoughts and feelings about the symptoms
  • somatoform disorder
  • personality disorders
  • DSM-5 : the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental Disorders
  • Generalized anxiety disorder :
  • PTSD
  • Hallucination
  • Abnormal behavior is behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a relatively long period of time.
  • delusions : 妄想, 錯覚, 妄想状態
  • Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) 反社会性人格障害、非社会性人格障害
  • Psychosis :精神病、精神異常 a state in which a person’s perceptions and thoughts are fundamentally removed from reality
  • Autism spectrum disorder 自閉症スペクトラム症、自閉症スペクトラム障害
  • genetic, neurobiological, cognitive, social, and environmental factors in psychological disorders, DSM-5continues to reflect the medical model, neglecting factors such as poverty, unemployment, and trauma
  • Cognitive explanations for depression
    • There may be self-defeating thoughts
    • There may be illogical thoughts
    • Overgeneralizations may  be involved
  • ADHD
    • impulsivity 衝動性
    • hyperactivity
    • inattention
  • excoriation : skin picking
  • Hoarding disorder ためこみ症
  • 2 types of disorders
    • depressive disorders
    • bipolar disorders
  • Schizophrenia  精神分裂病
    • positive symptom
      • hallucinations
      • delusions of grandeur
    • negative symptoms
      • reduced goal-directed behavior
      • lack of emotion
  • specific phobia
  • 4 most common anxiety disorders
    • generalized anxiety disorder
    • panic disorder
    • specific phobia
    • social anxiety disorder
  • autism spectrum disorder
  • social anxiety disorder (SAD)
  • Depressive disorder : hopelessness, lack of energy, poor concentration, and sleep problem
  • Vulnerability-stress hypothesis (also called the diathesis-stress modelストレス脆弱性モデル (ストレスぜいじゃくせいモデル、英:Diathesis-stress model) は、精神疾患の発症を説明する標準的な理論である。)
  • Borderline personality disorder (BPD) 境界型人格障害、不安定性パーソナリティ障害
  • excoriation disorder

Psychology (Ch13. Social psychology)

Outline

Ch13. Social psychology

  1. Defining social psychology
  2. Social cognition 
    1. Person perception 
      1. Physical attractiveness and other perceptual cues
      2. First impressions
    2. Attribution 
      1. attribution errors
      2. Heuristics in social information processing 
    3. The self as a social object 
      1. Overview 
      2. Self-objectification 
      3. Stereotype threat 
      4. Social comparison
    4. Attitudes
      1. Can attitudes predict behavior?
      2. Can behavior predict attitudes?
        1. Cognitive dissonance theory
        2. Self-perception theory
      3. Persuasion
  3. Social behavior 
    1. Altruism
      1. Biological factors in prosocial behavior 
      2. Psychological factors in prosocial behavior 
        1. Empathy
        2. Mood
      3. Sociocultural factors in prosocial behavior 
        1. Socioenocomic status
        2. Media influences
    2. Aggression
      1. Biological influences in aggression 
        1. Genes
        2. Neurological factors
      2. Psychological influences in aggression 
        1. Personality characteristics
        2. Frustrating and aversive circumstances
        3. Cognitive determinants
        4. Observational learning factors
      3. Sociocultural influences in aggression
        1. The culture of honor 
        2. Media 
  4. Social influence 
    1. Conformity and obedience 
      1. Conformity 
        1. Asch’s experiment
        2. Biological factors in conformity
        3. Psychological factors in conformity
        4. Cultural factors in conformity
      2. Obedience 
        1. Milgram’s experiment
        2. The Stanford prison experiment
      3. Exerting personal control
    2. Group influence
      1. Deindividuation 没個性化
      2. Social contagion 
      3. Group performance 
        1. Social facilitation
        2. Social loafing
      4. Group decision making 
        1. Risky shift and group polarization
        2. Groupthink : getting along but being very wrong
        3. Majority and minority influence
  5. Intergroup relations
    1. Group identity 
      1. Social identity 
      2. Ethnocentrism
      3. Prejudice 
      4. Discrimination 
    2. Ways to improve intergroup relations
      1. Optimal group contact 
      2. Breaking the prejudice habit 
  6. Close relationship
    1. Attraction 
      1. Proximity and similarity
    2. Love
    3. Models of close relationships
      1. Social exchange theory 
      2. The investment model
  7. Social psychology and health and wellness
    1. Overview

 

 

 


 

altruism : 利他主義

  • social loafing : 社会的手抜き(しゃかいてきてぬき)は、集団で共同作業を行う時に一人当たりの課題遂行量が人数の増加に伴って低下する現象。
  • heuristics : cognitive shortcuts, such as stereotypes, which enable us to make decision rapidly.  (学習者の)発見を助ける、 自発研究をうながす、 発見的な
  • obedience :
  • cognitive dissonance : the psychological discomfort
  • self-objectification
  • fundamental attribution error
  • social facilitation
  • self serving bias : the tendency to take credit for our successes and to deny responsibility for our failure
  • deindividuation  没個性化
  • discrimination
  • social cognition
  • the-door-in-the-face technique
  • the-foot-in-the door technique : making a smaller request at the beginning, saving the biggest demand for last.
  • conformity : a change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard. 〔慣習などに〕 従うこと服従準拠遵奉協調
  • prejudice
  • aggression : has multiple determinant (正当な理由のない)侵略、攻撃
    • Family pride
    • Masculine reputation
  • Social exchange theory : the equity in a relationship
  • Persuade
    • The communicator
    • The medium
    • The target (audience)
    • The message
    • others
      • the individual has weak attitudes about the topic
      • The individual feels a similarity with the person delivering the message
      • the message is delivering through television or video rather than print
  • elaboration likelihood model
    • a central route
    • a peripheral route
  • 2 sociocultural factors that influence prosocial behavior are
    • socioeconomic status
    • the media
  • social comparison :
  • effort justification
  • stereotype
  • Obedience  : Stanford Prison Experiment
  • the false consensus effect : overestimating the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do
  • affectionate love = companionate love
  • The mere exposure effect : 単純接触効果(たんじゅんせっしょくこうか)は、繰り返し接すると好意度や印象が高まるという効果。
  • Ethnocentrism :自民族中心主義 the tendency to favor one’s own ethnic group over other groups
  • social contagion : imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas. 社会的感染
  • vested interest : 既得権、確定的権利、利害関係、利権、(営利事業・現存体制などからの)受益団体
  • Explicit racism
  • Implicit racism

Psychology (Ch9. Development)

  • Emerging adulthood
    • the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood
    • characterized by experimentation and exploration
  • Permissive parenting
    • placing few limits on the child’s behavior
    • 寛大な、寛容な、許す、黙認の、任意の
  • Prenatal developmental stages
    1. Germinal period
    2. Embryonic period
    3. Fetal period
  • Moral development
    • changes with age in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide what people should do.
  • Typical of puberty
    • Rapid sexual maturation
    • Hormonal changes
    • Rapid skeletal maturation
  • resilience (元気の)回復力
    • a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
    • resilience involves making the most out of life.
  • phenotype
    • a person’s observable characteristics
    • 表現型、形質、表現形、表現形
  • neglectful parents
    • parents who are not involved with their children
  • Sensorimotor 感覚運動の
    • Piaget’s stages occurs from birth to 2 years age
    • object permanence begins in the sensorimotor stage.  永久、恒久不変、耐久性、永続性
  • Cognitive development
    • imagining a future occupation
    • problem solving
    • being able to speak and understand words
  • Temperament
    • individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding
  • Nature
    • refers to an individual’s biological inheritance
  • genotype
    • gives her the potential to be tall, but this potential interacts with the environment and may result in a number of phenotypic representations
    • inherited genetic material
  • nurture influence
    • ex) nutrition in early childhood
    • ex) peer pressure
  • nature influences
    • ex) eye color
    • ex) family history of hair loss
  • adolescent egocentrism
  • Piaget’s theory of schemas
    • 図表、図解、概要、大要
    • a schema assists us in making sense of experience
    • schemas are expressed as various behaviors and skills
    • a schema organizes information
  • teratogen
  • Conservation – Piaget
    • the knowledge that certain attributes of objects remain the same despite superficial changes
  • Formal operational
    • Pigeat’s stages occurs from about age 11 through adulthood
    • characterized by abstract and idealistic thinking
  • assimilation 消化、同化、同化作用、融合
    • occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge
    • Piaget’s theory
  • authoritarian 権威主義の、独裁主義的な (according to Baumrind)
    • presenting is restrictive, punitive style in which the parent both exhorts the child to follow the parent’s directions and places firm limits on the child.
    • authoritative parent
      • encourages independence
      • places limits
  • Erikson’s trust-versus-mistrust stage
    • the outcome depends on whether the infant’s caretakers meet its needs
    • it occurs during the first 1.5 years of life
  • nurture : in development psychology, the term nurture refers to an organism’s environmental experiences.
  • longitudinal research : a researcher studies the same group of people for 10 years
  • maturation : processes such as hormonal changes of puberty and menopause, changes in the brain, height, and weight, and motor skill changes reflect the developmental role of biological processes
  • infant attachment : to describe the initial important connection to a caregiver that provides a foundation for later development.
  • Cross sectional : asked people ages 20, 40, 60 about their levels of ex) happiness
  • identity status : James Marcia proposed the concept of identity status to describe a person’s position in the development of identity.
  • Erik Erikson’s theory of development : addressing various socioemotional tasks throughout the lifespan.
  • concrete operational stage :
    • it involves logical reasoning
    • abstract thinking is not yet developed
  • telomeres テロメア、末端小粒
  • Attachment : the close emotional bond formed between child and caregiver.
  • Moral development : involves changes with age in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide what people should do.
  • The authoritative parent :
    • places limits.
    • encourages independence.
  • According to Erikson, each of the 8 stages of socioemotional development represents a developmental task or crisis that a person must negotiate
  • According o Baumrind, the neglectful style refers to parents who are uninvolved in their children’s lives
  • Which of the following factors are important to successful adult development?
    • People develop and mature by coping with life difficulties
    • It is possible to develop a rich and complex view of the world
  • Who are you? The question pertains to which of the following theories?
    • Bowlby’s theory of attachment
  • According to the nativist approach, infants are born with some basic expectations about events and objects in the world.
  • Wisdom, which is expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life, might improve with age.
  • fetal period : the last period of prenatal development
  • Frank and Eleen are, according to Baumrind’s theory of parenting style, !”permissive parents” this means : they believe their parenting style will result in creative and confident children. They are involved with their children.
  • Which of the following are criticisms of Erikson’s socioemotional development theory? -Erikson’s theory is mostly based on case-study research. Critics say that Erikson summed up the stages with single concepts.
  • The preoperational stage lasts from approximately age 2 to 7 years of age.
  • Development in terms of biological processes involves which of the following changes?
    • Changes in motor skills
    • Maturation
    • Hormonal changes
  • entered menopause月経閉止(期)、閉経(期). In developmental terms, this is an example of
    • physical change
  • Infant attachment : the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver
  • Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
    • Systematic conclusion of the best path to follow
    • Generation of hypotheses
  • Socioemotional processes in developmental psychology
    • Changes in relationships and personality
    • Changes in emotion
  • Criticism for Kohlberg’s theory
    • He underestimated the role of emotion in moral decision-making
    • His viewpoint assumes that individual rights are more important than group bonds

Exercise physiology (Ch7. The nervous system: structure and control of movement)

Exercise physiology (Ch7. The nervous system: structure and control of movement)

  • General nervous system functions

  • Organization of the nervous system

    • Structure of the neuron

    • Electrical activity in neurons

      • Resting membrane potential

      • Action potential

      • All-or-none law

      • Neurotransmitters and synaptic transmission

  • Sensory information and reflexes

    • Joint proprioceptors

    • Muscle proprioceptors

      • Muscle spindle

      • Golgi tendon organs

  • Muscle chemoreceptors

  • Somatic motor function and motor neurons

  • Vestibular apparatus前庭器官 and equilibrium

  • Motor control functions of the brain

    • Cerebrum

    • Cerebellum

    • Brain stem

  • Motor functions of the spinal cord

  • Control of motor functions

  • Autonomic nervous system

  • Exercise enhances brain health

Exercise physiology (Ch8 Skeletal muscle: structure and function)

Exercise physiology (Ch8 Skeletal muscle: structure and function)

  • Structure of skeletal muscle
  • Neuromuscular junciton
  • Muscular contraction
    • Overview of the sliding filament / swinging lever -arm model
    • Energy for contraction
    • Regulation of excitation-contraction coupling
      • Excitation
      • Contraction
      • Muscle relaxation
  • Exercise and muscle fatigue
  • Exercise associated muscle cramps
  • Fiber types
    • Overview of biochemical and contractile characteristics of skeletal muscle
      • Biochemical properties of muscle
      • Contractile properties of skeletal muscle
    • Functional characteristics of muscle fiber types
      • Slow (Type I) fibers
      • Fast (Type IIa and Type IIx)
    • Fiber types and performance
  • Muscle actions
  • Speed of muscle action and relaxation
  • Force regulation in muscle
  • Force-velocity / power-velocity relationships

Human biology (Ch8.Cell communication)

  • Which of the following events must occur to reverse the activation of G-protein coupled factor?
    • The G protein must hydrolyze GTP to GDP
    • The ligand must dissociate from the GPCR
    • cAMP must be broken down to AMP
  • The mode of cell communication depends on : the distance between the cells that need to communicate
  • cell to cell signaling with the appropriate description
    • Receptor activation : a signaling molecule binds to a receptor 
    • Signal transduction : the signal is converted to a different type of signal, often resulting in the production of an intracellular signaling molecule
    • Cellular response : an enzyme, structural protein, or transcription factor is altered.
  • Signal transduction cascade
    1. A ligand binds to a G protein coupled receptor
    2. An intracellular G protein binds to GTP
    3. Adenylyl cyclase synthesizes cAMP
    4. Protein kinase A is activated
    5. Cellular proteins become phosphorylated and cause a cellular response.
  • Contact-dependent signaling
  • Protein kinases : the enzymes that transfer a phosphate group from ATP to specific amino acids in a protein are known as protein kinases.
  • What happens after activation of a G protein by a GPCR?
    • Adenylyl cyclase synthesizes cAMP
    • The G protein activates adenylyl cyclase
  • What happens during the first step in the signal transduction pathway involving cAMP?
    • the binding of a signaling molecule activates : GPCR
    • the G protein binds to : GTP
    • the alpha subunit dissociates from : γ/β dimer 
  • 5 ways
    1. Direct intercellular signaling
    2. Contact-dependent signaling
    3. Autocrine signaling
    4. Paracrine signaling
    5. Endocrine signaling
  • The activation of G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and G proteins
    1. A signaling molecule binds to a GPCR, causing it to bind to a G protein
    2. The G protein exchanges GDP for GTP. The G protein then dissociates from the receptor and separates into an active alpha subunit and beta/gamma dimer. The activated subunits promote cellular responses
    3. The signaling molecule eventually dissociates from the receptor, and the alpha subunit hydrolyzes GTP into GDP + Pi. The alpha subunit and the beta/gammma dimer reassociate.
  • Why cell communication is necessary
    1. Responding to changes in the environment
    2. Cell-to-cell communication
  • Adenylyl cyclase
  • 3 cell surface receptors
    • enzyme linked receptors
    • G protein coupled receptors
    • ligand gated ion channels
  • Examples
    • GPCR : ligand dissociates
    • G protein : GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP
    • cAMP : broken down by phosphodiesterase
    • Protein kinase A : inhibited as cAMP levels fall
    • Cellular proteins : phosphate groups are removed by phosphatases
  • The epidermal growth factor (EGF) pathway that promotes cell division.
    1. Receptor activation
    2. Relay between the receptor and protein kinase cascade
    3. Protein kinase cascade
    4. Activation of transcription factors
    5. Cellular response
  • 3 pathways
    1. relay proteins activate a protein kinase cascade
    2. the protein kinase cascade
    3. Activation of transcription factors and the cellular response
  • How do second messengers amplify cellular signaling?
    • They allow many more target proteins to be activated
  • Catalytic
  • Put the steps of the signal transduction pathway activated by EGF in the correct order.
    1. The EGF receptor binds to EGF, dimerizers, and becomes phosphorylated
    2. Relay proteins become activated
    3. Ras releases GDP and binds GTP
    4. A protein kinase cascade becomes activated
    5. Transcription factors become phosphorylated
    6. Genes encoding proteins that promote cell division are expressed
  • Signals influence the behavior of cells nearby or at long distances by interacting with receptors to elicit a response.
  • Select all of the following that are the result of cell signaling causing the rearrangement of actin filaments, which are structural proteins.
    • an amoeba moving towards food
    • animal cells moving during embryonic development
  • The specific cellular proteins phosphorylated by the catalytic subunit of PKA are
    • Transcription factors
    • structural proteins
  • Match each component of the EGF signal transduction pathway with the event that activates it
    • EGF receptor : Binding of EGF
    • Ras : Binding of GTP
    • Transcription factors : phosphorylation
    • Genes encoding proteins for cell division : activated transcription factors
  • 3 common categories of proteins that are controlled by cell signaling are
    1. Enzymes
    2. Transcription factors
    3. Structural proteins
  • Identify the relay proteins in the EGF signal transduction pathway.
    • Ras
    • Sos
    • Grb
  • In signal transduction pathways that are associated with cAMP, protein kinase A uses ATP to phosphorylate specific cellular proteins
  • EGF receptor signaling leads to the activation of transcription factors, which stimulate the expression of specific genes.
  • What is the function of protein kinases?
    • They add phosphate groups to proteins
  • The synthesis of cAMP occurs when one type of G protein alpha subunit interacts with the enzyme adenylyl cyclaseアデニル酸環化酵素
  • The specific cellular proteins phosphorylated by the catalytic subunit of PKA are
    • Transcription factors
    • Structural proteins

Human Biology (Ch4. General Features of cells)

  • Overview of Cell Structure and Function
    • Cell theory 
      1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells 
      2. New cells come only from pre-existing cells by cell division
    • Cells are the simplest units of life
    • Robert Hook : coined the term “cell”
    • Anton van Leeuwenhoek “animacules極微動物微小動物.”
    • Division
      • Humans eye
      • Light microscope
      • Electron microscope
    • Cell size limited by surface area-to-volume ratio
      • 表面積が2倍増えると、体積が3倍増える。表面積を増やしすぎると、体積を抱えきれなくなる。(細胞の場合は内部のホメオスタシスを保つことが難しくなる。なぜならsurface area:細胞膜でホメオスタシスの要、tranportationを行うからである。)
    • 2 types of cells
      1. Prokaryotes (Domain Bacteria & Archaea)原核生物
        1. Bacteria
          1. Small cells, 1 μm – 10 μm in diameter
          2. Very abundant in environment and our bodies
          3. Vast majority are not harmful to humans
          4. Some species cause disease (pathogens)
          5. Structure
            1. Ribosomes : synthesize polypeptides. cytoplasm内に散らばっている。
            2. Cytoplasm : site of metabolism
            3. Pili線毛: allow bacteria to attach to surfaces and to each other . 周囲についている。
            4. Flagella 鞭毛 : allow certain bacteria to swim. プロペラ的な
            5. Glycocalyx 多糖類層: outer gelatinous covering (これはカバーの役割果たしてないの?)
            6. Cell wall : provides support and protection.
            7. Plasma membrane : encloses the cytoplasm
            8. Nucleoid region核様体 : site where the DNA is found. Nucleusみたいにはっきりと境目があるわけではない。
        2. Archaea 古細菌
          1. Small cells, 1 μm – 10 μm in diameter
          2. Less common 
          3. Often found in extreme environments
      2. Eukaryotes (Domain Eukarya)
        • ex) Plants, Animals, Protists, Fungi
        • Larger and more complex cell type
        • Organelles
          • Membrane-bound compartments
          • Each has a unique structure and function
        • Variety
          • Shape, size, and organization varies considerably
          • Differences between specialized cell types
        • Animal cell

          1. Nucleus : Area where most of the genetic material is organized and expressed
          2. Nuclear pore : passageway for molecules into and out of the nucleus
          3. Nucleolus核小体: site for ribosome subunit assembly. 
          4. Nuclear envelope : double membrane that encloses the nucleus
          5. Chromatin : a complex of protein and DNA(植物と共通)
          6. Centrosome :中心体、中心小体 site where microtubules grow and centrioles are found
          7. Rough ER : site of protein sorting and secretion 
          8. Smooth ER : site of detoxification and lipid synthesis
          9. Ribosome : site of polypeptide synthesis
          10. Mitochondrion : site of ATP synthesis
          11. Cytoskeleton : protein filaments that provide shape and aid in movement (こんな役割あったんやね!)
          12. Lysosome : site where macromolecules are degraded. (そもそもmacromoleculesは細胞質を超えられないのでは?とすると、一度合成されたタンパク質が別の目的のために再合成される必要がある時にlysosomeが活躍するのか?解体屋的な?)
          13. Peroxisome : site where hydrogen peroxide and other harmful molecules (for example?. これを処理する速さは?細胞による違いは?) are broken down. これはタンパク質なのか?なんなのか?
            1. hydrogen peroxide : 漂白剤染料クレンザー消毒薬殺菌剤用いられる化学物質濃度高いと、有毒組織炎症を起こす
          14. Golgi apparatus : site of modification, sorting, and secretion of lipids(ここでいうlipidsはsteroidホルモンのことか?) and proteins.
          15. Cytosol : site of many metabolic pathways
          16. Plasma membrane : membrane that controls movement of substances into and out of the cell; site of cell signaling 
        • Plant cell

          1. Central vacuole :中心空胞 : site that provides storage, regulation of cell volume
          2. Chromatin :(細胞核内の)染色質 : a complex of protein and DNA (動物と共通)
          3. Chloroplast :葉緑体 site of phosotynthesis
          4. Cell wall : structure that provides cell.
    • Characteristics of cells
  • The Cytoplasm
    • Cytoskeleton (これはEukaryotes (Domain Eukarya)特有?)
      • Microtubules -25nm
        • Long, hollow cylindrical structures
        • Dynamic instabilityorganization of cell organelles;
        • chromosome sorting in
          cell division; intracellular movement of cargo; cell motility (cilia and flagella)
      • Intermediate filaments -10nm
        • Intermediate in size
        • Form twisted, ropelike structureprovide cells with mechanical strength; anchorage of cell and nuclear membranes.
      • Actin filaments -7nm
        • also known as microfilaments
        • long, thin fibers cell strength; muscle
          contraction(筋内ではactin filamentsが綺麗に整列している。他の細胞でもactin filamentsはあるが細胞の形維持に役立っているってことか。); intracellular movement of cargo; cell movement (amoeboid movement); cytokinesis in animal cells
      • Flagella (これは。。。Eukaryotes (Domain Eukarya)特有??)
        • Usually longer than cilia and present individually or in pairs
        • 9+2 microtubule array (どっかで見たな。。。)
      • Cilia 
        • often shorter than flagella and tend to cover cell surface
        • 9+2 microtubule array
    • Cytosol
      • coordination of responses to the environment
      • Coordination of metabolism
      • Synthesis of the proteome 「すべての(ome)タンパク質(protein)」
      • Organization and movement via cytoskeleton and motor proteins
  • The Nucleus and Endomembrane System
    • The endomembrane system
      • may be directly connected to each other or pass materials using vesicles
      • Involved in production, storage or distribution of lipids and proteins
    • Nucleus細胞核(大きいくくり。細胞の真ん中にある大きいやつ。)-organization and protection of chromosomes via the nuclear matrix.
      • Nuclear envelope 核膜
        • pores guarded by proteins
      • Nucleolus核小体 (これいっつも間違えてるから気をつけること。)
        • Site of synthesis of rRNA and ribosomal subunits
        • Nucleusの中のNucleolus
    • DNA protein complex
      • Thread-like chromatin (細胞核内の)染色質 associated with histone proteins
      •  NucleusとNucleolusの間に浮かんでるやつ。

    • Ribosomes

      • Non-membranous organelles
      • Composed of large and small subunits
        • Proteins 大きい方?小さい方?
        • rRNA (ribosomal RNA) 大きい方?小さい方?
      • Site of protein synthesis
    •  Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
      • Covered with ribosomes (protein synthesis)
      • Glycosylation : 糖鎖修飾、グリコシル化
    • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
      • No ribosomes (だからsmoothなんやね)
      • Lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
      • Metabolic functions and accumulation of Ca2+
    • Golgi apparatus 
      • Chemically alters, sorts and packages molecules from ER
        • Renews and modifies plasma membrane 
        • Organizes cell wall components ーもっと具体例が欲しい
        • Produces membranous storage organelles ーもっと具体例が欲しい
        • Releases secretory products. (これは細胞外、つまり血中にだす物質?ホルモンだったりするのか???)
      • Structure -cis face, trans face
      • Glycosylation : 糖鎖修飾、グリコシル化
    • Lysosomes
      • Powerful enzyme-containing vesicles
      • Hydrolyse molecules taken in by endocytosis
      • Recycle damaged organelles (recycleといっても解体するだけやんね?タンパク質分解してアミノ酸にするってことか?)
      • Apoptosis プログラム細胞死
      • Storage of organic molecules
    • Peroxisomes
      • Enzyme-containing vesicles
      • Catalyze multiple chemical reactions
      • Often involved in detoxification 
        • Neutralize hydrogen peroxide. どの過程でこいつが発生するんや。
    • Vacuoles
      • Functions are extremely varied, differing among cell types and environmental conditions.
      • Accumulation of water (plant vacuole) これは植物特有だったっけか?
  • Semiautonomous Organelles
    • Mitochondria and chloroplasts
    • Contain their own DNA and ribosomes
    • Grow and divide to reproduce themselves
    • Not completely independent but not part of endomembrane system
    • Mitochondria
      • site of cellular respiration
      • converts energy from food into ATP
      • Structure
        • Outer membrane
        • Inner membrane
        • Intermembrane space
        • Crista
        • DNA
        • Matrix
        • Ribosome
    • Chloroplasts 
      • Site of photosynthesis
      • Energy from sun transformed into organic compounds (sugars)
      • Energy from sun used to generate organic compounds (sugars like glucose)
      • Organics (like glucose) are broken down to synthesize ATP to power cellular work.
  • Extracellular Matrix and Plant Cell Walls
    • Cells secrete materials to form protective structures outside the cell membrane
      • Extracellular matrix in animals
        • secretes a protextive mixture of sugars and proteins
        • Functions
          • Strength
          • Structural support
          • Organization
          • Cell signaling
      • (Plant) Cell wall in plants, fungi and algae
        • Strength, rigidity, and support
        • Primary cell wall 
          • made first
          • thin and flexible so cells can grow, composed of various polysaccharides such as cellulose?.
          • cellulose and microfibrils in a meshwork pattern
        • Secondary cell wall
          • made second, between cell membrane and primary wall
          • Made in layers (mostly cellulose), very strong
          • Each layer contains strong cellulose microfibrils in parallel arrays.
          • The direction of cellulose microfibrils in each layer is varied.

 


Evolutionary connections

  • Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved through ancient symbiotic relationships 共生関係
    • Why do mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA?
    • Endosymbiosis 内部共生
      • relationship in which a smaller species lives inside a larger species
    • Endosymbiosis theory 
      • mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria that started living inside a primordial eukaryotic cell (primordial-原始の)
  • purple bacteria : 紅色細菌(こうしょくさいきん、purple bacteria)は、光合成細菌のうち酸素を発生せず、カロテノイドの蓄積により赤色ないし褐色を呈するものの総称である。ミトコンドリアの起源。
  • cyanobacteria : 葉緑素に加えて青色色素含んでいる主に光合成原核生物

Kinesiology (Ch4. Shoulder girdle)

Shoulder girdle

  • Shoulder girdle (pectoral girdle) -move as a unit during all shoulder girdle actions.
    • 2 structures
      1. Scapula 
      2. Clavicle
    • 2 articulations
      1. Sternoclavicular joint
        • articulation of the end of the clavicle, the sternum, and cartilage of the 1st rib
        • Features
          • only links the axial skeleton to the appendicular skeleton
          • the pivotal point for all movements of the shoulder girdle
      2. Acromioclavicular joint 
        • Features
          • Relies heavily on ligament structure for structural stability
          • 20-30 total degrees of gliding and rotational motion (どの方向に?絵でイメージできるように。)
    • Shoulder joint movements are dependent on scapular involvement (上腕骨の動きは肩甲帯の動きに依存する)
    • Shoulder girdle movements are not dependent on shoulder joint movements (肩甲帯の動きは上腕骨の動きに依存しない)
      • The shoulder girdle merely provides a stabilizing base for shoulder movements to occur.
      • Scapular movement involves both acromioclavicular joint sternoclavicular joint
        • As shoulder movements occur, the scapula moves to keep the glenoid fossa in a position to support the head of the humerus
        • Without scapular function, shoulder flexion and shoulder abduction would be limited to about 90 degree of motion.
    • Scapular muscles are also essential to maintaining static posture and controlling dynamic posture
    • A common postural abnormality is forward shoulder posture,
      • which results from tight shoulder internal rotation(どの筋肉?subscapularis? teres minor?…) as a result of weak shoulder external rotators.
      • This abnormality can be resisted by strong scapular retractors(rhomboid major, minor, trapezius??) working in concert with shoulder external rotators (infraspinatus).
    • Scapular movements

      1. Elevation
        • an upward movement of the scapula with the vertebral border remaining parallel to the spinal column
      2. Depression
        1. the return from the position of elevation (僧帽筋下部. 上腕骨を使えるなら広背筋も含むかな?)
      3. Abduction (protraction)
        1. lateral movement of the scapula away from the spinal column with the vertebral border remaining parallel to it.
      4. Adduction (retraction)
        1. a medial movement of the scapula toward the spinal column combined with a reduction of lateral tilt.
      5. Upward rotation
        1. a rotation of the scapula in the frontal plane so that the glenoid fossa faces upward
      6. Downward rotation
        1. the return from the position of upward rotation
      7. Upward tilt (復習!)(posterior tilt???)
        1. a turning of the scapula on its frontal-horizontal axis so that the posterior surface faces slightly upward and the inferior angle protrudes from the back
      8. Reduction of upward tilt
        1. the return movement from upward tilt
    • 6 Shoulder girdle muscles

      • Overview
        • Anterior
          • Pectoralis minor 
          • Serratus anterior 
          • Subclavius (not prime mover for any shoulder girdle actions)
        • Posterior
          • Levator scapulae 
          • Rhomboids (minor/major)
          • Trapezius (upper/middle/inferior)
      • 5 primary muscles
        • Do not attach to the humerus
        • Do not cause shoulder joint action
        • Do provide dynamic stability of the scapula
        • Do allow the scapula to support shoulder joint activity
      • Innervation
        • Cervical plexus
          • group of spinal nerves composed of cervical nerves 1-4
        • Brachial plexus 
          • group of nerves composed of cervical nerves 5-8, and thoracic nerve 1 
      • Muscles
        1. Pectoralis minor

          1. Origin :
            1. The anterior surface of the 3-5 ribs near the costal cartilages
          2. Insertion :
            1. The coracoid process of the scapula (on the medial border of the superior surface)
          3. Action
            1. Abduction(protraction)
            2. Depression
            3. Downward rotation of the scapula
          4. +
            1. When performing a parallel dip, the pectoralis minor depresses and rotates the scapula downward from an upward rotated position.
            2. Push ups or any pushing movements in a horizontal plane involve true scapular abduction
            3. A lack o balanced strengthening of the scapular adductors (antagonists, rhomboid major, minor?) can lead to flexion contracture, which results in a forward and round shouldered posture.
        2. Serratus anterior 
          1. Origin
            1. The outer surface of the upper 9 ribs
          2. Insertion
            1. The anterior aspect of the whole length of medial border of the scapula
          3. Action
            1. Scapula abduction (protraction) worked with pectoralis minor.
            2. Upward rotation of the scapula (何番目のserratus anterior かで機能は異なる。ゆえに特定の筋肉に徒手抵抗を掛ける際は角度を工夫すれば理論的には9つのserratus anteriorにアプローチが可能。
          4. +
            1. The serratus anterior is involved in movements that draw the scapula forward with slight upward rotation, such as:
              1. Throwing a baseball
              2. A boxing punch
              3. Shooting a basketball
            2. Concert with movements involving the pectoralis major such as bench presses and push ups
            3. Winging of the scapula : vertebral border of the scapula tilts away from the rib cage.
              1. Weakness or nerve impairment of the serratus anterior
              2. Damage to the

                long thoracic nerve

                can cause paralysis of the serratus anterior muscle

            4. Persons with complete or marked paralysis of the serratus anterior cannot elevate their arms above 90 degrees of abduction because scapula does not move upward rotation.
            5. Final 5-10 degrees of a push up
              1. The initial phase of a push up primarily involves the triceps and pectoralis major
            6. As the serratus anterior draws the scapula forward with a tendency toward upward rotation, the pectoralis minor pulls toward downward rotation. (この両者の関係性は大切やね!)
              1. These combine actions result  in true abduction and represent an example of neutralization
        3. Subclavius
          1. Origin
            1. The 1st rib at the costocartilage junction
          2. Insertion
            1. The middle 1/3 of the inferior shaft of the clavicle
          3. Action
            1. Stabilizes the clavicle by moving it medially
          4. +
            1. not regarded as a prime mover for any shoulder girdle actions–subclavius weakness would not significantly impair sternoclavicular movement since other muscles support the joint structure.
        4. Levator scapula
          1. Origin
            1. The transverse processes of the first 4 cervical vertebrae (C1-C4)
          2. Insertion
            1. Medial border of the scapula
          3. Action
            1. Elevation and downward rotation when the trunk is in an erect position
          4. +
            1. Scapular elevation is accomplished by the levator scapula, the upper fibers of the trapezius, and a portion of the middle fibers
              1. The upper trapezius fibers which attach on the lateral 3rd of the clavicle pull directly upward resulting in true elevation. 
              2. The levator scapula in addition to elevation causes downward rotation due its insertion on the medial border of the scapula. 
            2. Strengthening activities for scapular elevation
              1. Any shoulder abduction that exceeds 90 degrees
        5. Rhomboid major
          1. Origin
            1. The spinous processes of T2 through T5 vertebrae
          2. Insertion
            1. Medial border of the scapula below the scapular spine. 
          3. Action
            1. Adduction (retraction) and downward rotation of the scapulaこれがイメージできひん。 
          4. +
        6. Rhomboid minor
          1. Origin
            1. The spinous processes of C7 and T1
          2. Insertion
            1. Medial border of the scapula below the scapular spine
          3. Action
            1. Adduction (retraction) and downward rotation of the scapula.
          4. +
            1. Functionally the rhomboid major and minor are regarded as one muscle
            2. During shoulder horizontal abduction, the rhomboids in conjunction with the middle fibers of the trapezius stabilize the scapula in a position of adduction. 水平外転時には僧帽筋中部繊維と共に肩甲骨内転位をサポートする。
            3. The rhomboids are strongly involved in chinning, rowing, and any movements that involve pulling the arms down and back. 
            4. Assuming a dead hang position to begin a chin up, pulls the scapula is into abduction.
              1. During the concentric phase of the movement, the rhomboids adduct the scapula and rotate it downward.
              2. Basically the same movement pattern occurs any rowing motion, or any movement that involves resisted shoulder extension
        7. Trapezius (upper fibers)
          1. Origin
            1. Base of the skull , occipital protuberance, posterior ligaments of the neck.
          2. Insertion
            1. Posterior aspect of the lateral 3rd of the clavicle
          3. Action
            1. Elevation of the scapula
            2. extension and rotation of the head the on the neck (cervical spine)
        8. Trapezius (medial fibers)
          1. Origin
            1. Spinous process of C7 through T3 vertebrae
          2. Insertion
            1. Medial border of the acromion process
            2. Upper border of the scapular spine
          3. Action
            1. Abduction
            2. Elevation
            3. Upward rotation of the scapula
        9. Trapezius (lower fibers)
          1. Origin
            1. Spinous process of T4 through T12 thoracic vertebrae
          2. Insertion
            1. Triangular space at the base of the scapula spine 
          3. Action
            1. Adduction of the shoulder joint
            2. Depression of shoulder girdle
            3. Upward rotation of the scapula (他の筋肉と協同しないとこれは達成できないのでは?例えばserratus anterior??)
          4. + (Trapezius)
            1. Upper fibers – work in unison with the levator scapulae to elevate the scapula.
            2. Middle fibers – work in unison with the rhomboids during scapular adduction.
            3. Middle and lower fibers are involved in scapula adduction and upward rotation (肩甲骨内側から引いたらそりゃあそうなるか。でもdepressしないように誰かが抑えないといけないな。levator scapulae.)
            4. The upper and lower fibers balance each other out in maintaining movements of elevation and depression.
            5. The middle and lower fibers are very active during the entire range of shoulder abduction, most specifically during the final few degrees of abduction. (最後の最後に肩甲骨upward rotateでglenoid cavityを上向きに持って行く的な感じ?)
            6. The middle portion of the trapezius is thicker and stronger than the upper or lower portions
            7. Weakness of the middle portion is rare since it is constantly involved in fixing the shoulder for functional activity and in the maintenance of posture.
            8. Trapezius strengthening movements include
              1. Upper trapezius : shrugs,
              2. Middle and lower trapezius – all rowing motions, bent over dumbbell lateral raises, shrugging motions with the trunk in a horizontal position
                1. Scapular depression is also strongly involved during the completion of a parallel bar dip.

NATA-ATC AT program 面接の内容

NATA-ATCを取得するためには、まずはAT programから合格をもらわなければなりません。書類面接の次にやってくるのが、電話もしくはスカイプ面接。私もとても緊張しました。私が面接に向けて用意した内容をここに残しておきますので、ご自由にお使いください。2校の大学院から電話面接を受けましたが、おおよそここに書いた内容を聞かれました。(プログラムにより質問内容は大きく異なります。あくまで参考程度にしてください。)ここにある表現を使うことによるいかなる損害も私は責任を負いません。自己責任でお願いします。(文法や言い回しが不自然なところはありますが、面接では一応言いたいことは以下の文章でも通じました)。

This is Shunnosuke Hayashi.

Please to meet you, Dr. 教授名 and Dr. 教授名.

Firstly, I would like to thank you for giving me the opportunity of interview for your program.

And I also would like to thank you to Dr.ーーーー for scheduling my campus visit last year.

That was wonderful experience to me. I appreciate that.

 

Q Why do you want become ATC? なぜATCになりたい?

The reason why I want to become ATC is to achieve my dream.

That is to support motorsport driver as an athletic trainer.

I like motorsports since when I was elementary school student.

However, I didn’t have opportunity to become racing driver.

Instead, I played baseball.

4 years ago, I injured my right shoulder,

and then I had to give up playing baseball.

Soon after that, I took a class for athletic trainer,

and then I found some ATCs in the US work for motorsports drivers.

I was surprised and I thought this was what I wanted to do in the future.

Other reason is this.

For Japanese, being able to speak English is a huge advantage in the future. In my case, I can work for not only Japanese athletes,

but also foreign athletes.

And I can support racing teams when they go to abroad races.

These are reasons why I want to be ATC.

Q What’s your strength? あなたの強みは?

One of my greatest strengths is dedication to achieve my goal.

I’ve spent almost all of my time to achieve my dream for 4 years.

For example, my English skill was very limited 4 years ago, but after 3000 hours of study, my English improved enough to attend classes in the US.

It was difficult to keep motivation for study in Japan

because my friends who also wanted to become ATC gave up his dream due to lack of English skill

and I was busy for working as a student athletic trainer, and it’s difficult to find a time for study.

However, I made every effort and I didn’t give up my dream.

I will also keep this dedication in the future.

 

Q What’s your weakness? あなたの弱みは?

One of my drawback points is perfectionist.

I cannot forgive myself until I complete my task.

For example, when I have assignments, I hesitate to hang out with my friends.

Even if it seems like that I have enough time to finish the assignment by the due date.

It may be a good attitude as a student,

but I sometime put too much stress on myself.

 

Q When you feel stress out, what will you do? ストレスを感じた時どうする?

When I feel stress, I enjoy watching motorsports on you tube.

It reminds me of my dream.

What do I want to do in the future? I ask myself.

Yes. I want to be ATC who support them.

I always realize that it’s not a good idea to stop moving toward my dream because of stress.

This is my resolution.

 

Q コンフォートゾーンを超える必要があるか?

Absolutely, YES.

In my opinion, people can gain useful knowledge and precious experience, only when they push themselves to the limit.

In my case, I’m challenging to learn sports medicine in new language.

It’s really hard for me.

For example, they are cultural difference, language difference, and finance problem.

It’s not comfort at all, but this environment give me opportunity to improve myself.

Q If there is a person who disagrees with your opinion, what will you do?

First, I will have conversation.

I’ll do my best to be a good listener.

In this case, communication is really important.

I’m always curious to know about other people’s opinion,

so I actually appreciate people who disagree my opinion.

To know each other people’s opinion is a necessary step to achieve final conclusion.

 

Q After graduation?

Hopefully, after I graduate, I want to work for Indy car or NASCAR drivers.

However, I guess everything will not going well.

It’s difficult to get full time job for new ATC.

In addition, I’m a international employee.

Company or racing team do not want to hire me because of H1-B VISA.

Other option would be to enter Doctorate of Athletic Training of Indiana State University.

I want to learn advanced skill and applied research.

After that, I want to find an opportunity to work with racing drivers.

 

 

 

Q Why did you choose ISU?

2 reasons

  1. I like your athletic training program.

Examples are the atmosphere of your program, well-equipped facilities, and good faculty.

Students respect each other.

There are educated professional ATC and

up to date machines for care.

I went to ISU last semester, and I observed your program.

So I know your program well.

  1. ISU is located near Indianapolis, which is famous for motorsports.

In my opinion, the possibility to get internship for Indy-car and NASCAR is higher than any other cities.

The fact supports me to achieve my dream.

 

Q What do you want learn in this program?

Of course I want to learn basic knowledge and experience in your program.

Not only basic skills, I want to learn massage therapy technique and nutrition.

 

Q What experience do you have?

In Japan, I had worked as a student athletic trainer for 3 years.

2 years for Rugby, 1 year for American football.

My main jobs were teaching rehabilitation, taping, and preparation for rehabilitation room.

In the US, last semester, I went to William Carey University, which is near my university, to complete 50 observation hours.

My main jobs were to assist physical modalities, like ultrasound and electric stimulation and to clean rehabilitation room.

 

 

 

QどのようにしてMotorsportドライバーを支える予定ですか?

There are 3 main things that I have to do for motorsports drivers

Firstly, they need physical training on weekdays.

Secondly, they need massage or conditioning during race weekend.

Lastly, they need nutrition advises.

Physical training

Racing drivers should do training as the same as other athletes.

However, their job is different from other sports.

They have to support their head and helmet by their neck.

Their hands and foot have to work precisely all the time to control racing car.

So the menu of physical training should be modified for them.

Massage or conditioning

I will use massage therapy to maximize their performance.

I want to offer proper conditions for their nerves, muscles, and blood vessels by massage.

I want to learn these kind of skill in your program.

Nutrition

Proper nutrition is very important to keep body condition.

It’s especially for motorsports drivers

because they have to concentrate on driving all the time.

If they make a mistake,

they cannot only win the race, but also they may crash to the wall.

 

 

Do you have any question?

Q Doctorate of Athletic Training.

I am really interested in Doctorate of Athletic training of ISU.

—–Q Can international students like me apply for this program?

 

—–Q How many students can get graduate assistantships?

 

  1. Massage therapy minor.

—–Q Can I take massage therapy minor courses while I study at AT program?

 

——————————————————————————–

 

Thank you again for taking your time to give me an opportunity for interview.

I’m looking forward to meeting you next semester.

Human biology (Ch Membrane structure

  • exocytosis 開口放出:
    • material inside the cell is packaged into vesicles and then excreted into the extracellular environment
    • vesicular movement of large molecules out of cells
  • endocytosis :
    • vesicular movement of large molecules into cells
    • 3 types
      • receptor-mediated endocytosis
      • pinocytosis 飲細胞作用
      • phagocytosis 食作用
  • gap junctions : amino acids, cAMP, and calcium ions can pass through gap junctions.
  • Cell junction
    • Anchoring junctions :
    • Tight junctions : animal cell junctions that prevent the leakage of material between cells
    • Gap junctions : animal cell junctions that allow the exchange of ions and small molecules between the cytosol of adjacent cells
    • Plasmodesmata 原形質連絡  : passageways between the cell walls of adjacent plant cells
  • membrane fluidity increase when
    • have shorter fatty acid tails
  • Highest membrane permeability to lowest
    1. Oxygen gas :
    2. Water : uncharged but polar, but still small enough to be permeable
    3. Glucose : this sugar is polar but small enough to be permeable
    4. Potassium ions : these are charged and therefore cannon transverse the hydrophobic interior of a membrane
  • Transport proteins
    • transmembrane proteins called transport proteins allow ions and hydrophilic molecules to cross the phospholipid bilayer.
  • Integral membrane proteins
    • Transmembrane proteins
    • Lipid-anchored proteins
  • Fluid-mosaic model
    1. phospholipids can move within the plane of the membrane
    2. membranes are mainly composed of proteins and phospholipids
    3. many membrane proteins move within the plane of the membrane
  • Phospholipid bilayer’s permeability to them, beginning with the lowest permeability at the top.
  • 4 types of anchoring junctions in humans
    • Adhere junctions
    • Desmosomes
    • Hemidesmosomes
    • Focal adhesion
  • Plasmolysis 原形質分離
    • plant cell in a hypertonic solution
  • conformational change 立体構造変化、コンフォメーション変化
    • transporter proteins bind their solutes in a hydrophilic pocket
  • Steps involved in the actions of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump, starting with the binding of Na+ at the top.
    1. 3 Na+ bind from cytosol, ATP is hydrolyzed, and ADP is released
    2. Phosphate(P) is bound to the pump, switching it to the E2 configuration.
    3. 3 Na+ are released outside the cell
    4. 2 K+ bind from outside the cell
    5. Phosphate is released, and the pump switches to the E1 configuration
    6. 2K+ are released into the cytosol.
  • movements of a phospholipid are energetically favorable within the bilayer
    • lateral movements
    • rotational movements
  • Process of exocytosis
    1. Cargo to be excreted is loaded into a vesicle as a protein coat wraps around the vesicle
    2. The assembly of coat proteins causes the vesicles to bud out from the Golgi
    3. The vesicle carrying cargo is released from the Golgi apparatus
    4. The protein coat is shed
    5. The vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane
    6. The cargo of the vesicle is released outside the cell
  • Process involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis
    1. Cargo binds to the receptor and receptors aggregate
    2. Coat proteins bind to the membrane as it invaginates to form a vesicle
    3. The vesicle is released into the cell
    4. The protein coat is shed
    5. The vesicle fuses with an internal organelle
    6. The cargo is released
  • Peter Agre’s experiment that led to the discovery of aquaporin in the correct order, beginning with the earliest step at the top
    1. Transcribe the CHIP28 gene
    2. Inject CHIP28 mRNA into frog oocytes
    3. Place from oocytes into a hypotonic solution
    4. Observe the rupture of frog oocytes under a microscope.
  • Tight junctions are made by membrane proteins, called occludin and claudin, that interlaced strands in the plasma membrane
    • occludin and claudin
  • Simple and facilitated diffusion
    • Both simple and facilitated diffusion require concentration gradients
    • Facilitated diffusion, but not simple diffusion, requires a transport protein.
  • Proteins that assist in the movement of substances across membranes can be classified into 2 types based on how they move solutes across a membrane : channels and transporters.
  • Cholesterol
    • At a high temperature, it makes the membrane less fluid;
    • At a low temperature, it makes the membrane more fluid.
  • Functions of cellular membrane
    • anchoring the cytoskeleton
    • cell and nuclear division
    • protein sorting
    • cell signaling
  • Movements of a phospholipids are energetically favorable within the bilayer.
    • Rotational movements
    • Lateral movements
  • Plasmodesmata :原形質連絡 cell junctions form channels between adjacent plant cells
    • allow the passage of ions and small molecules, such as sugars, ions and ATP.
  • Transporter proteins : classified by
    • the type of solutes they bind
    • the direction of transport
    • NO : the type of solutes they bind because transporters bind many types of solutes
  • Adherens junctions
    • connect cells to each other via cadherins
    • These junctions are organized into bands around cells
    • On the cytosolic side of the plasma membrane, adherins junctions bind to cytoskeletal filaments called actin filaments
  • Transmembrane proteins called transport proteins allow ions and hydrophilic molecules to cross the phospholipid bilayer.